DNA Translation

DNA Translation

DNA Translation is the second step in ribosomal protein production. This step is continued from Transcription(see DNA Transcription Blog Post for more), which is the process of transcripting or making a DNA strand's mRNA counterpart. This process will take that mRNA and use it to set up the synthesis of proteins.

Materials

mRNA strand

Codon chart

Codons

Codons are basically segments of the transcripted DNA. Usually, three bases make up one codon and each codon is coded for a specific protein that a tRNA(transfer ribonucleic acid) is carrying. Examples will be shown during the process.

Process

1. Take the mRNA strand from the previous process of Transcription and then break up into codons of three, starting with the first AUG set you see.
Ex: AUGGGCUAUAGCC --> AUG GGC UAU AGC
2. Use codon chart to translate the codons into the respective amino acids
Ex: AUG-Meth GGC-Gly UAU-Tyro AGC-Ser
3. Always finish translating when you come across UAA or UAG as they code for stop.

Reflection

This topic was very interesting and fun for me personally, as I like puzzles and this seemed to be one of the many puzzles experienced in biology. While the skills practiced with this process may be helpful in other handy situations, the actual process can't help in anything outside of biology.

Replication

Replication

Key Points:

-  copying DNA
- takes place during cell reproduction
- copies chromosomes
- hydrogen bonds are broken
- a new (replica) DNA strand is pulled together with an original
- where the DNA splits is known as a fork
- Adenine pairs with Thymine
- Cytosine pairs with Guanine
- Guanine pairs with Cytosine
- Thymine pairs with Adenine

In Depth: 

First, the double helix DNA strand is flattened out. Then a strand of DNA is split. An enzyme, Helices, unzips the DNA strand and breaks the hydrogen bonds. Free roaming nucleotides that are floating around attach to the DNA strand. An enzyme, polymerase, pulls the nucleotides to the DNA strand. This creates 2 identical strands. The strands are half new and half original.

Citations:
"DNA Structure And Replication: Crash Course Biology #10". YouTube. N.p., 2017. Web. 22 May 2017.

Wosnick, Dr. "Of Spelling Mistakes And Cancers… - Cancer Research 101". Cancer Research 101. N.p., 2017. Web. 22 May 2017.

Acid Rain

                                             Acid Rain 

What is it? Acid Rain is rainfall that made sufficiently acidic atmospheric pollution that causes environmental harm. This usually happens to forests and lakes. 

What causes it? Acid Rain main cause is industrial burning of coal and other fossil fuels. The waste gases from the contain sulfur and nitrogen oxides, combine with atmospheric water to form acids. 

The Effects of it: It makes the water acidic and causes them to absorb the aluminum that makes it's way from soil into the lakes and streams. The combination makes the water toxic to certain types of fish and other aquatic animals. 
Citations:

http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-and-effects-of-acid-rain.php 

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/acid-rain/ 

what is acid rain? 

Natural Selection

Chloe Russell

Main Ideas:

          1) Survival of the Fittest

          2) Narrows down the most successful traits in the environment

          3) Natural selection is a constant process

                        a) the environment changes

                        b) the suitable factors that determine success change as well

Reflection:

          The theory of Natural selection was created by Charles Darwin. Darwin developed this theory by observing finches in the Galapagos Islands. I was shocked that in the Galapagos Islands the types of beaks on finches varied with the islands. The beaks on the finches were suited to the types of foods available. This can be applied to every day life by looking at people being the product of their environment. People who are raised in bad situations have a high likelihood of getting into a bad situation. It is the same for people who are in good situations. 

Citations:

"Natural Selection Topic". Answers in Genesis. N.p., 2017. Web. 19 May 2017.

19 May. 2017.("Unit 5: Mr. Black's Biology Class")

Translation

Heather Russo

rRNA-Ribosomal RNA

tRNA-Transport RNA

Codon-Groups of 3 of nitrogen bases

-Translation is the second part of creating proteins

-translation is the process in which ribosomes in a cell's cytoplasm create proteins, following transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus.

-In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded by a ribosome, outside the nucleus, to produce a specific amino acid chain

 -The tRNAs carry specific amino acids that are chained together into a polypeptide as the mRNA passes through and is read by the ribosome.

Reflection-

When researching this topic I learned more about how translation works and the steps that go with it. We had previously learned about this in class so I already knew a lot of about this topic but researching it on my own time made me understand it 10 times better. I liked this objective because it really put the pieces together in my head about the making of proteins.

"Translation (Genetics)." Wikipedia. N.p., n.d. Web.

"DNA Translation and the Genetic Code." Kaiserscience. N.p., n.d. Web.

PKU - Nick Oberlin

PKU (Phenylketonuria)

Main Points:

 - Birth Defect

 - Causes amino acid phenylalanine to not produce normally
 - It is inherited

Heredity Pattern:
 - Autosomal recessive

Symptoms:
 - Delayed development
 - Intellectual disability
 - Seizures

What I learned:
Before making this blog post, I had no idea what PKU was or what it did. But now I know that it is a genetic disease that causes irregular production in the animo acid phenylalanine. It follows the autosomal recessive pattern and can cause some mental and physical disabilities.

Sources:
 - Notes from Mr. Black's class

Huntington's Disease

Huntington's Disease

By: Olivia Marshall

Main points…

Huntington's Disease is a disease that is an inherited. It causes degeneration of brain cells, called neurons, in motor control regions of the brain, as well as other areas.

Huntington’s disease causes disability that gets worse over time. People with this disease usually die within 15 to 20 years following diagnosis.

There are not any cures for the disease at the time.

Some symptoms you can have if you have the disease are uncontrolled movements, abnormal body postures, and changes in behavior, emotion, judgment, and cognition.

There is treatment that can help slow the disease down but it is not cured. 

Learned: There is no cure for the disease at the time.

Surprised: That you can get the disease at such a young age. It says you can get Huntington’s Disease starting at around age 30.

Citations: 

https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Huntingtons-Disease-Information-Page

https://www.epainassist.com/genetic-disorders/huntingtons-disease

http://hdsa.org/what-is-hd/

Greenhouse Effect - Natalie White

Greenhouse Effect

Natalie White

Summery - The greenhouse effect is a natural process where the heat from the sun hits the Earth and some is reflected back to space and the rest is trapped in the atmosphere by greenhouse grasses. Greenhouse gasses are any gaseous compound, that can absorb radiation, in the atmosphere. These gasses act as a blanket over the Earth.  The Greenhouse effect affects global warming which causes weather patterns to change. It is currently at the highest its been in over 3 million years. 

Negative effects - 

• more drought and more flooding
• less ice and snow
• more extreme weather incidents
• rising sea level

References

"What Is The Greenhouse Effect?". Global Warming Facts. N.p., 2017. Web. 20 May 2017.

Reflection - I had always knew about greenhouses but I thought it was a conspiracy that it was linked with global warming or that it was fake. However global warming is very real and is affecting our environment and also has 

Outside of biology - These greenhouse gasses have a serious effect on our atmosphere and we can take measures to help slow it such as reducing, reusing, recycling, using less energy, less heating and air, driving less or driving a smarter car and many others. 

More at - http://www.greenenergyhelpfiles.com/articles/17.htm

Ways to slow down the greenhouse effect - http://www.eastgwillimbury.ca/Services/Environment/Ten_Ways_to_Reduce_Greenhouse_Gases.htm?PageMode=Print

GAME!

Geographic Isolation

* A population of any organism that are separated from exchanging their genetic material with other organisms of the same species. Basically two of the same species that are separated so they can't breed.
* Typically happens do to an accident or coincidence.
* Can lead to speciation.
* Examples of Geographic Isolation are isolation by barrier, isolation by distance, isolation after an event, and isolation by separation.
* Isolation by Barrier: People in Finland develop certain disease because of the lack of genetic materials from other races. They can't get other genetic materials because of the water surrounding them from the rest of the world.
* Isolation by Distance: A group of differentiated bottlenose dolphins become extinct after becoming separated from members of its species.
* Isolation after an Event: An earthquake separates two populations from each other causing each different population to have different genetic makeup to the other. (I don't know if that makes sense.)
* Isolation by Separation: A population of brown-haired people are separated from other populations and don't mix with other hair-colors. This cause a town of homogenous brown-hair color.

Reflection:
In summary, geographic isolation causes speciation by separating the same species where they begin to start adapting to the environment they were put in. Like when Charles Darwin did his finches experiment, he separated the finches in different environments and studied them. Over time the finches adapted to their new environment. At least I think thats what he did. Nothing in this topic really surprised me because it has everything in the title. It's just geographically isolating a population to create speciation. It wasn't something I knew before but we did learn about geography. This subject is kind of easy because of its name. You can apply this outside of biology by helping to create some kind of new species maybe or help track down ancestors of some new organism.

"Examples of Geographic Isolation." Your Dictionary, examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-geographic-isolation.html. Accessed 19 May 17.

Genetic Variation: Random Assortment

What is Random Assortment?

     Random, or independent, assortment is the random order in which the chromatids of a homologous pair line up within the cell. 

When does Random Assortment occur?

     Random/Independent Assortment occurs during Metaphase 1 in Meiosis. 

How does it cause Genetic Variation?

     A child receives two chromatids for every homologous pair. They receive one from each parent. Each chromatid contains its own set of DNA. Depending on which side of the cell the chromatid is on during the Anaphase & Telophase steps, a cell with its own set of unique DNA will be formed. 

Reflection 

     Random assortment is a process that occurs during Meiosis and is a crucial factor that contributes to genetic variation. 

Citations

Black, Jordan. "Meiosis". 2017. Presentation.

"Definition Of INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT". Merriam-webster.com. N.p., 2017. Web. 19 May 2017.

"Sam And Ahmad". Bio1.yolasite.com. N.p., 2017. Web. 19 May 2017.

Symbiotic Relationship: Mutualism

Mutualism

Symbiosis Effects

Mutualism - Both are benefit

Mutualism- Is the way two different species exist in a relationship in which each individual benefits from the activity the other 

 Reflection- Mutualismshave long been seen as exchanges of benefits, of which one can identify a few main types: (a) nutritional: either the breakdownof com-pounds by digestion for the partner, or supply of growth factors or nutrients. Most types symbiotic mutualism involve the supply of energy from one partner to the other, whether autotroph to heterotroph (284) or between heterotrophs

  

Citation- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)

My Notes- Mr Black

Substitution

Mutation: Substitution

What is Substitution?

Substitution is a mutation that occurs when a base of a nucleotide is switched out for a another one.

What can Substitution do?

• change a codon to one that codes for a different amino acid and cause a small shift in the protein produced. For example, sickle cell anemia is caused by a substitution which changes an amino acid in the protein produced.

• change a codon to the same codon causing no change in the amino acid sequence which are called silent mutations. For example, Adenine is switched out for Adenine.

• change an amino-acid-coding codon to a single "stop" codon and cause an incomplete protein. This can have serious effects since the incomplete protein probably won't function. This is thus the worst case of substitution. To emphasize this more clearly, a codon UAU has one of its bases changed so its now UAG which means "stop".

This is the least fatal mutation out of all of the mutations which are insertion and deletion

Reflection

Mutations explain how disorders or cancer develops perfectly and to know that there is a least deadly kind of mutation eases the paranoia.

Citation

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/mutations_03

Genetics: Incomplete Dominance - Skylar Oliver

Main Ideas:

- Incomplete dominance is when organisms with two different phenotypes cross to produce an offspring which has a third phenotype, the offspring displays a blend of the parental traits.

- Incomplete dominance is an example of non-Mendelian genetics that implies that there is no trait that is dominant over the other. 

- The overall thing you have to remember is that offsprings are a mixture of the of both parents. (Ex: red + white flower = pink flower)

Punnet square:

- You can still use a Punnet square to solve problems involving incomplete dominance. The only difference is that instead of using a capital letter for the dominant trait & a lowercase letter for the recessive trait, the letters you are both going to be capital (because neither trait dominates the other). 

- You also use apostrophes to decipher between your different traits since both are capital. 

- ( Ex: Red = R  and White = R',  Pink = RR')

The trick is to recognize when you are dealing with a question involving incomplete dominance. 

There are two steps to this:

1.) Notice that the offspring is showing a 3rd phenotype. The parents each have one, and the offspring are different from the parents.

2.) Notice that the trait in the offspring is a blend (mixing) of the parental traits.

Reflection: Overall this was a simple topic that I mainly knew about from class. I find that genetics are very interesting and how many different combinations you can get when combining two phenotypes together. You can use incomplete dominance outside of biology when you are trying to determine what you flowers are going to look like when you are gardening or what kind of traits you can expect to receive when breeding different animals. 

Citations: 

- Class notes from Mr. Black

- "Incomplete & Codominance". Hobart.k12.in.us. N.p., 2017. Web. 19 May 2017

- "Dominance (Genetics)". En.wikipedia.org. N.p., 2017. Web. 19 May 2017.

Abiogenesis

Abiogenesis

by Morgan Fletcher 

Abiogenesis: Generation of life from non-living thing. 

EOC Review: https://quizlet.com/1096421/abiogenesis-flash-cards/

Examples of abiogenesis: 

How frogs come to life? 

-  rain of fishes and frogs

Who: Aristotle was the first scientist to promote the theory of abiogenesis

Reflection I didn't know what this was at first but once we went over it in class this topic is very basic. 

The thing that surprise me was how people thought something could come from nothing. 

Websites used: 

Mr.Black notes 

https://quizlet.com/13989166/chapter-1-flash-cards/

Enzymes

Main Ideas:
-globular proteins
-reusable
-they don't die, they denature (when an enzyme is damaged)
-effected by change in temperature and pH
-speeds up reactions
-specific for their substrate

-acts as a catalyst to accelerate a reaction

-the function of an enzyme is based on its shape

-named based on the substrate it is designed to react with

*take the name of the substrate and use the ending -ASE*

How does the reaction work?

-the enzyme will lower the activation energy causing the reaction to occur

-activation energy: the amount of energy required to start a reaction

Substrate Complex:

-enzyme: protein performing the action

-active site: the region of the enzyme where the substrate will attach

Denaturing:

-when an enzyme becomes damaged or destroyed

-the most common way of denaturing an enzyme is by changing the pH or temperature of their required environment

-pH: how acidic or basic something is.

-1-14

-7 is water/neutral

-acids: 1= strong, 6=weak

-bases: 8= weak, 14= strong

Enzyme = neutral/98.6 degrees F

Reflection: I liked learning about enzymes because I didn't know anything about them. The labs that we did to go along with them were fun. I think they're interesting because without them, reactions would take ages to complete.

Citations:
Notes
"Enzyme". Wikipedia. N.p., 2017. Web. 19 May 2017.

Genetic Variation: Crossing Over

Each parent cell has pairs of homologous  chromosomes. 

• One homologous chromosome is from the father and one from the mother. 
• In meiosis, the maternal and paternal chromosomes can be shuffled into the daughter cells in many different combinations. 
• This provides genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms. 
• Genetic variation comes from crossing over, which may occur during prophase I of meiosis.
• In prophase I of meiosis, sister chromatids swap their version of the same genes, which increases genetic variation.
• After crossing over, the chromosomes are neither entirely maternal nor entirely paternal, but contain genes from both parents.

I already knew about this topic, and I enjoyed learning about it. 

Alcoholic Fermentation

What you need to know -->
* Alcoholic Fermentation is a type of Anaerobic Respiration and it's commonly associated with yeast.
* It's important to remember that this does NOT naturally occur in the body. It is possible, but it is not common.
Here is a video that you can watch to learn more. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOMO8pIrZEw

Also a small article that talks about Alcoholic Fermentation in the body --> http://www.medicalbag.com/profile-in-rare-diseases/gut-fermentation-syndrome/article/472431/
Summary -->
We didn't learn all that much about this topic specifically, mainly because we were told that not a lot of questions, if any, are going to pop up on the end of the year exam. But I learned that something like this exists, and I thought it was pretty cool to know.

Citations: http://www.medicalbag.com/profile-in-rare-diseases/gut-fermentation-syndrome/article/472431/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOMO8pIrZEw
https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookGlyc.html

Color Blindness

Main Ideas:

- Most common in men

- 99% of colorblind people aren't colorblind, their color deficient. 

- 99% of colorblind people suffer from red-green colorblindness. 

- If a woman is red-green colorblind, her sons will be colorblind.

- A father can't pass his red-green colorblindness to his sons. 

Summary: 

I learned many things about colorblindness. There are many things I didn't expect. I didn't know that a dad can't pass his red-green colorblindness to his sons and that if a mom is red-green colorblind, her sons will be colorblind. I learned colorblindness is a sex-linked trait and that males have a higher rate of having it. I expected more females to have colorblindness but the rate is small. I liked learning about this because I know many people who are living with this issue. Color blindness is more common in males rather than females because it is on the X sed chromosome. 

Citations:

Hamilton, Jon. "University And Biotech Firm Team Up On Colorblindness Therapy." NPR. NPR, 25 Mar. 2015. Web. 19 May 2017.

/.latest_citation_text

"Colorblindness." National Eye Institute. Nei.nih.gov, n.d. Web. 19 May 2017.

/.latest_citation_text

Diabetes

Main Idea: Diabetes is a disease in which the body’s ability to produce or respond to insulin is impaired. With type 1 diabetes, your body does not produce insulin. With type 2 your body does not make or produce insulin well. If you have diabetes you will often have to check your blood sugar and give your body insulin usually before a meal. 

Types of diabetes:

Type 2: A chronic condition that affects the way the body processes blood sugar (glucose). (most common) 

Type 1: A condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin 

Pre-diabetes: When blood sugar is high, but not high enough to be type 2 

Gestational: A from of high blood sugar affecting pregnant women 

Causes and Risk Factors : Lifestyle choices (sedentary lifestyle), being overweight or obese, a family history of diabetes, high blood pressure, and low levels of “good” cholesterol. Your pancreas not being able to produce insulin 

Symptoms: 

Excessive thirst, weight loss, hunger, fatigue, yeast infections, tingling or numbness in the feet or toes 

Treatments: Close watch over blood sugar, combination of medications (including insulin) ,exercise, and diet. 

Reflection: 

I found this topic the most interesting because I know it is very common and I have previous knowledge of diabetes. I already knew the general idea of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. I learned about pre-diabetes and gestational diabetes. 

https://www.google.com/search?q=diabetes&oq=diabetes+&aqs=chrome..69i57j0l5.6625j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

https://medlineplus.gov/diabetes.html

http://www.medicinenet.com/diabetes_mellitus/article.htm

http://www.diabetesforecast.org/2015/mar-apr/diabetes-devices-what-matters-most.html

Genetic Variation: Mutations

Genetic Variation:

 Mutations

• A mutation is an change in a DNA sequence
• Occurs when a gene is damaged or changed in any way
• Mutations can range in size: affecting anywhere from a single DNA building block to a large portion of a chromosome
• Mutations can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful for the organism, and are mostly random

Important Vocabulary to know:

• Addition (insertion)
• Deletion
• Substitution
• Mutagen 
• Frameshift mutation
• Somatic

Types of mutations:

There are three types of mutations:

• Addition
• Deletion
• Insertion 

-Addition (also known as insertion) is when one or more nucleotide base pairs are inserted into the    DNA sequence, This is a type of frameshift mutation.
   *A frameshift mutation a genetic mutation caused by insertions or deletions of a number of    nucleotides in a DNA sequence that is not divisible by three, frameshift mutations are bad
-Deletion is the removal of one or more nucleotides in a DNA sequence, also a type of frameshift      mutation
-Substitution is a mutation that exchanges one or more bases for another, this can result in a different   amino acid codon reading

Causes of mutation:

• Mutations can be caused by a mistake in copying the DNA or by exposure to certain environmental facts
• Hereditary mutations are inherited from a parent and are present during their life

                 Ex:) cystic fibrosis, color blindness, and sickle cell anemia

•   Somatic mutations occur some time during a person’s life and are present in certain cells, not in every cell in the body. These can't occur in the sex cells so they aren't inherited

Deletion

Substitution 

Addition (or insertion)

Reflection:

I learned a lot about the causes of mutations. I also learned the different effects of mutations, and which ones cause cancer. I already knew the basics of this topic but I learned about it more in depth. I was surprised that there weren't more causes for these mutations. 

Citations:

"What types of mutation are there?" Facts. The Public Engagement team at the Wellcome Genome Campus, 25 Jan. 2016. Web. 08 May 2017.

"What is a DNA Mutation?" DNA Services UNLIMITED. N.p., 26 Aug. 2016. Web. 08 May 2017.

The causes of mutations. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 May 2017.

"What is a gene mutation and how do mutations occur? - Genetics Home Reference." U.S. National Library of Medicine. National Institutes of Health, n.d. Web. 08 May 2017.