Mutation: Substitution

Mutations: Substitution

* Substitution is a mutation that occurs when a base(s) of a nucleotide is exchanged for another.
* This can change the coding of the entire amino acid sequence.
* This is considered one of the more least deadly mutations.
* Substitution Mutation can have a variety of effects. Nothing could happen from substitution because it codes for the same protein or it could cause either an early stop or no stop at all.
* A premature stop badly affects the formation of proteins.

Reflection:
In summary, Substitution Mutation can either do nothing to your body or change it completely. Your body can stop making proteins if it causes a premature stop in the coding sequence which surprised me when we were learning about this. It's also kind of easier to determine what kind of mutation happened with substitution because you don't have to count how many nucleotides there are in the sequence. You just have to find out which nucleotide(s) were changed as you read through it. I didn't know about any of this before and when we were learning about mutations in general I didn't think it affected the proteins in the body at all. I though it gave you stuff like six arms or super powers and not give you disease like cancer. This objective was interesting because I figured out why some mutations were less deadly than others. I don't know how this can be applied outside of biology but it could maybe help doctors determine stuff.

"Genetic Code Mutations." SparkNotes, www.sparknotes.com/biology/molecular/geneticcode/section3.rhtml. Accessed 13 Apr. 2017.

Cell Organelle: Vacuoles - Skylar Oliver

Main Ideas:
- Vacuoles are storage bubbles found in cells.
- They are found in both animal and plant cells but they are much larger in plant cells.
- They store food or any variety of nutrients a cell needs to survive.
- They store waste products so the rest of the cell is protected from contamination, eventually the waste products will be sent out of the cell.
- The structure of vacuoles are simple, there is a membrane that surrounds fluid. Inside that fluid are nutrients and waste products.
- Plants may use a vacuole to store water as well. The tiny water bags help support the plant.
- Most of a plant cells volume depends on materials in vacuoles. Vacuoles gain and lose water depending on how much is available to the plant.
- The structure of a vacuole varies according to the needs of the cell.
- It exports any unwanted substances from the cell and isolates materials that might be harmful or threaten the cell.
- They can store proteins/enzymes.
- Vacuoles are also known for helping to maintain the pressure within a cell and the balancing of the pH of a cell.

Reflection: I have learned that when a plant cell has stopped growing, there is usually one large vacuole. Sometimes the vacuole can take up more than half of the cells volume, this is very surprising considering how many other organelles are required in a cell to function properly.

Citations:
- "Difference Between Plant Vacuole And Animal Vacuole". Difference Between. N.p., 2017. Web. 12 Apr. 2017.

- Studios, Andrew. "Biology4kids.Com: Cell Structure: Vacuoles". Biology4kids.com. N.p., 2017. Web. 14 Apr. 2017.

DNA: Structure & Function

DNA: Structure and Function
by Caden Ryan

What is DNA:

DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic material of an organism as well as control cellular functions. You probably remember the shape of the DNA being a twisted step ladder. This is known as double helix shape, and is was discovered by scientists Watson and Crick in 1953. Its shape allows it to contain lengths of genetic code that helps decide what the organism is and what it can or cannot do. As DNA manages to make up an organism, what comes together to make DNA?

Base Materials:

The main component of DNA is a nucleotide with this composition: Deoxyribose sugar, a nucleotide base(more on that later), and a phosphate. This is similar to ribosomes as they are made up of ribose sugar and the other two materials. While these materials may seem basic, the organization of them are far from basic or simple.

DNA Model:

The DNA model as shown above is organized in a way that genetic traits can be created and an organism can be made. The Sugar and Phosphate are what make up the "struts" of the ladder, more or less seen as a backbone. The Nitrogen bases create the "rungs" and this is where the varying traits are made. Although there are only four nitrogen bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine; the organization of these bases and(more importantly) their pairs decide what organism anything is. The matches are Adenine to Thymine and Cytosine to Guanine as shown below.

Reflection:

Being taught this material, nothing really new at first jumped out at me at first. I had known about the four bases and how they connect, but the real depth that went into the lesson was really well done. Good explanation was put into the explanation of the materials that made it up and how the four bases work in varying organisms. How this can actually help outside Biology is possibly in some trivia tournaments or even relating other topics like say romantic relationships are somewhat similar. I don't really know, maybe creative interpretation was what DNA holds for you instead of me. Whatever it may, now you know DNA.


Citations:
http://www.delhidailynews.com/news/DNA-is-not-static--it-constantly-wiggles---morphs-into-different-shapes--study-1444713495/
http://biosocialmethods.isr.umich.edu/epigenetics-tutorial/epigenetics-tutorial-genome-structure/

Mitochondria

Chloe Russell

Main Ideas:

          1) Known as the powerhouse of the cell

          2) Chemical reactions happen in the mitochondria that produce energy for the cell

          3) Has a folded inner membrane that has a large surface area so it can produce more                       energy

          4) Has its own DNA

Reflection:

          Mitochondria is a very important organelle that produces energy. Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells. Mitochondria are found in the cytoplasm. It has a folded inner membrane called cristae that helps it produce more energy. I was surprised to find out that Mitochondria has DNA in it. I had previously learned about Mitochondria, but I did not know that cells that need more energy (ex: muscle cells) would have more mitochondria than other cells. 

Citations:

k, amithbabu, and View profile. "MITOCHONDRIA- DEFINITION-STRUCTURE- FUNCTION". Biozoomer.com. N.p., 2017. Web. 14 Apr. 2017.("Unit 2: Mr. Black's Biology Class")

Plant vs. Animal Cells

Plant vs Animal Cells                                                Natalie White

Summery 

Plant and animals have many similarities such as the nucleus, however they also have many differences such as the cell wall. Both cells have the same job, to transport nutrients and break them down, provide support to the organism and control chemical reactions. Plant and animal cells have 3 main differences vacuole size, chloroplasts and a cell wall. The plant cell however is able to make and transport its own nutrients through the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process of converting light, water and carbon dioxide into sugar the bi-product oxygen. This process is carried out by chloroplasts and chlorophyll which traps the sunlight. Animal cells however can not make their own food and must take in nutrients. Plant cells also contain a cell wall, made of cellulose which is located outside of the cell membrane and support the shape of the cell and also control what enters and exists the cell.  The plant cell vacuole is also bigger because it holds the nutrients needed in photosynthesis.

Organelles

Plant cells -

• The organelles in plants and animals are the same with the following exception
• Plant cells have no lysosomes or centrioles
• Plants have a CELL WALL - made out of cellulose - rigid and tough - square or rectangle - cell wall is outside of the plasma membrane - controls what goes in and out of the cell
• Plasma membrane takes on the same shape as the cell wall
• Discovered by Hooke
• The cell wall remains after the cell dies
• Plastids - store food and sometimes helps make food
• Chloroplasts - green color - carries out photosynthesis
• Chlorophyll which traps the sun’s energy
• Vacuoles in plants are much larger than in animals

Animal cell -

• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm - streaming
• Nucleus - nucleus membrane - nucleus
• Endoplasmic reticulum - smooth and rough
• Mitocondria
• Vacuole
• Lysosomes - enzymes
• Golgi apparatus
• Centrioles

Samson, Stacey. "Plant Cell Vs Animal Cell | What's The Difference?". Difference Talk. N.p., 2017. Web. 14 Apr. 2017.

Reflection - I had learned a lot about plant and animal cells, the organelles and functions, from previous science classes however I did learn a little more depth into the photosynthesis process such as plastids and about the differences in rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. I like learning about plant and animal cells so I thoroughly enjoyed the unit.

Outside of Science - One way you can use your knowledge of plant and animal cells is in gardening because you know that the plant must have sunlight, water and air to survive and thrive.

Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. 

Step 1 (Question): 

Create a question and think about what you hope to discover during the process. Think about what question you would like to answer. Your question needs to be about something reasonable and will typically start with words such as what, when, where, how or why.

Step 2 (Research): 

Use resources to perform background research on your question; gathering information will help prepare you for the next step in the Scientific Method.

Step 3 (Hypothesis):

Using your background research and current knowledge, make an educated guess that answers your question. Your hypothesis should be a simple statement that explains what you think might happen.

Step 4 (Experiment):

Step by step, conduct an experiment that tests your hypothesis. The experiment should be a fair test that changes only one variable at a time while keeping everything else the same. Repeat the experiment to be sure that your results are accurate.

Step 5 (Data): 

Collect data and record the progress of your experiment. Be sure to  document your results with detailed measurements. Include descriptions and observations in the form of notes, journal entries, photos, charts or graphs.

Step 6 (Conclusion): 

Analyze the data you collected and summarize your results. Use your data to help answer your original question. Ask yourself, do the results of your experiment support or oppose your hypothesis?

Step 7 (Communication): 

Present your final conclusion!

Reflection: 

This is something I learned when I was younger, and I have not learned anything new from it. I like this objective because it is very helpful, and you can use it outside of biology. It can be helpful in everyday life! 

Citations: 

https://www.pinterest.com/bwilliams1210/stem-scientific-method/

Chloroplasts Carter Gamble

Main Ideas:
- Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells, not animal
- Made up of stacks (granules) of thylakoids encased in a membrane
- Main purpose of a chloroplast is to convert sunlight into energy in the process of photosynthesis
- Green color comes from chlorophyll

Reflection:
In the topic of chloroplasts I already I knew most of the information concerning their function, since they are so important in plant cells. It is still amazing to me that something that simple could create its own energy just with the sunlight. In our lessons on chloroplasts I have learned about their anatomy and function. This is very important information mostly in biology but could be possible used in the field of solar energy to make advances.